Lamin
Gradual loss of tissue function (or homeostasis) is a natural process of aging and is believed to cause many age-associated diseases. In human epidemiology studies, the low-grade and chronic systemic inflammation in elderly has been correlated with the development of aging related pathologies. Although it is suspected that tissue decline is related to systemic inflammation, the cause and consequence of these aging phenomena are poorly understood. By studying the Drosophila fat body and gut, this study has uncovered a mechanism by which lamin-B loss in the fat body upon aging induces age-associated systemic inflammation. This chronic inflammation results in the repression of gut local immune response, which in turn leads to the over-proliferation and mis-differentiation of the intestinal stem cells, thereby resulting in gut hyperplasia. Implications and remaining questions are discussed in light of these new observations (Chen, 2015).
Lamin family proteins are structural components of a filamentous framework, the nuclear lamina (NL), underlying the inner membrane of nuclear envelope. The NL not only plays a role in nucleus mechanical support and nuclear shaping, but is also involved in many cellular processes including DNA replication, gene expression and chromatin positioning. Spermatogenesis is a very complex differentiation process in which each stage is characterized by nuclear architecture dramatic changes, from the early mitotic stage to the sperm differentiation final stage. Nevertheless, very few data are present in the literature on the NL behavior during this process. This study shows the first and complete description of NL behavior during meiosis and spermatogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster. By confocal imaging, the NL modifications were characterized from mitotic stages, through meiotic divisions to sperm differentiation with an anti-laminDm0 antibody against the major component of the Drosophila NL. It was observed that continuous changes in the NL structure occurred in parallel with chromatin reorganization throughout the whole process and that meiotic divisions occurred in a closed context. Finally, NL was examined in solofuso meiotic mutant, where chromatin segregation is severely affected, and a strict correlation was found between the presence of chromatin and that of NL (Fabbretti, 2016).
Eukaryotic genomes contain transposable elements (TE) that can move into new locations upon activation. Since uncontrolled transposition of TEs, including the retrotransposons and DNA transposons, can lead to DNA breaks and genomic instability, multiple mechanisms, including heterochromatin-mediated repression, have evolved to repress TE activation. Studies in model organisms have shown that TEs become activated upon aging as a result of age-associated deregulation of heterochromatin. Considering that different organisms or cell types may undergo distinct heterochromatin changes upon aging, it is important to identify pathways that lead to TE activation in specific tissues and cell types. Through deep sequencing of isolated RNAs, this study report an increased expression of many retrotransposons in the old Drosophila fat body, an organ equivalent to the mammalian liver and adipose tissue. This de-repression correlates with an increased number of DNA damage foci and decreased level of Drosophila lamin-B in the old fat body cells. Depletion of the Drosophila lamin-B in the young or larval fat body results in a reduction of heterochromatin and a corresponding increase in retrotransposon expression and DNA damage. Further manipulations of lamin-B and retrotransposon expression suggest a role of the nuclear lamina in maintaining the genome integrity of the Drosophila fat body by repressing retrotransposons (Chen, 2016).
A Drosophila Lamin mutant is described resulting from a P element insertion into the first intron of the Lamin gene. Homozygous mutant animals showed a severe phenotype including retardation in development, reduced viability, sterility, and impaired locomotion. Reduced Lamin expression causes an enrichment of nuclear pore complexes in cytoplasmic annulate lamellae and in nuclear envelope clusters. In several cells, particularly the densely packed somata of the central nervous system,
defective nuclear envelopes are also observed. All aspects of the mutant phenotype are rescued upon P element-mediated germline transformation with a Lamin transgene. These data constitute the first genetic proof that lamins are essential for the structural organization of the cell nucleus (Lenz-Bohme, 1997).
The Klarsicht (Klar) protein is a crucial factor in the regulation of
bidirectional transport of lipid droplets. Lipid droplets
in early embryos move bidirectionally along microtubules, and the balance of
plus- and minus-end travel distances changes twice over a 2-h period, resulting
in switches in the direction of net transport. In the absence of Klar, travel
distances, travel velocities, and stall forces are greatly reduced, for both
plus- and minus-end travel. Without Klar the motors for plus- and minus-end
motion are active indiscriminately, engaging in a tug-of-war. Thus, Klar seems to be central for understanding how the activity of
opposite-polarity motors is coordinated during bidirectional transport. In this
system, Klar controls the minus-end motor cytoplasmic dynein and an as yet unknown plus-end motor (Patterson, 2004; Guo, 2005 and
references therein).
In its role in photoreceptor nuclear migration, Klarsicht is required for
connecting the microtubule organizing center (MTOC) to the nucleus. In addition,
in a genetic screen for klarsicht-interacting genes, Lam Dm0, which encodes nuclear lamin, was found. Like
Klarsicht, lamin is required for photoreceptor nuclear migration and for nuclear
attachment to the MTOC. Moreover, perinuclear localization of Klarsicht requires
lamin. It is proposed that nuclear migration requires linkage of the MTOC to the
nucleus through an interaction between microtubules, Klarsicht, and lamin
(Patterson, 2004).
Nuclear migration in the developing eye is critical for shaping each
individual cell and thus for normal morphology of the entire compound eye. The
Drosophila compound eye develops within the larval eye imaginal disc, an
epithelial monolayer. Within the eye disc, the morphogenetic furrow marks the
initiation of eye assembly. Rows of identical facets, or ommatidia, assemble
posterior to the furrow, starting with the eight photoreceptors (R-cells),
followed by the lens-secreting cone cells, and finally the pigment cells.
Anterior to the furrow, cells are undifferentiated and their nuclei are
positioned randomly within the monolayer. The nuclei dive basally within the
furrow and posterior to the furrow, migrate apically as they are recruited into
ommatidia (Patterson, 2004 and references therein).
Two Drosophila genes, klarsicht (previously known as
marbles) and Glued, are essential for the apical migration of
nuclei in differentiating R-cells (Fischer-Vize, 1994; Fan, 1997). Glued
encodes the large subunit of dynactin, a protein complex that regulates the
minus-end-directed microtubule motor dynein. The requirement for dynactin
suggests that R-cell nuclear migration is a dynein- and microtubule-dependent
process. Consistent with this idea, two other Drosophila genes,
Bicaudal-D< and Lis1, both of which may regulate dynein, are implicated in R-cell nuclear migration, although their mutant phenotypes are weak compared with klarsicht and Glued. Lis-1, a WD40 repeat protein, is
the homolog of the human disease gene Lissencephaly-1. Lissencephaly, or
smooth brain, is a disorder resulting from defects in neuronal migrations
essential for normal human brain development. Neuronal migration requires
nuclear migration, and the involvement of Lis-1 in Drosophila
R-cell nuclear migration suggests that the two processes may be in part
analogous. It is now clear that a connection between the MTOC and the nucleus is
necessary for nuclear migration and that this connection is mediated by Klar and
nuclear lamin. In addition to suggesting a specific role for Klar in nuclear
migration, the results propose a general mechanistic explanation for the
cytoplasmic effects of nuclear lamin, including human laminopathies (Patterson,
2004).
To understand the role of Klar in R-cell nuclear migration, Klar subcellular
localization and the position of the MTOC was investigated in klar mutant
eye discs. In addition, genetics was used to identify nuclear lamin, which
functions in the same pathway with Klar. Klar was found to be perinuclear and
associated with microtubules apical to the nucleus. In addition, in klar
and Lam mutant discs, MTOCs form normally in R-cells, but are often not
associated with the nucleus as they are in wild-type eyes. Finally,
Lam+ was found to be required for Klar localization to the
nuclear membrane. These observations, taken together with previous results,
suggest a model for the function of Klar in nuclear migration where Klar, held
in the nuclear envelope by nuclear lamin, links the nucleus to the MTOC
(Patterson, 2004).
The interaction between Klar and lamin may be indirect, but it is likely to
be specific, rather than a generalized failure of nuclear envelope assembly in
Lam mutants. Although most R-cell nuclei fail to migrate apically even
in weak, viable Lam mutants, >90% of nuclear envelopes are intact even
in stronger, lethal Lam mutants (Patterson, 2004 and references therein).
It is proposed that one or more proteins may form a bridge between the KASH
domain of Klar, present in the outer nuclear membrane, and nuclear lamin, in the
inner nuclear envelope. The observation that in addition to its perinuclear
localization, Klar is cytoplasmic (on apical microtubules) supports the idea
that Klar is in the outer, as opposed to the inner, nuclear membrane. Similarly,
C. elegans Anc-1 is present in the cytoplasm as well as the nuclear
membrane, and a model has been proposed where the Anc-1 KASH domain is held in
the outer nuclear membrane by an inner nuclear membrane protein, Unc-84. Although nuclear lamin has not been shown directly to be
required for Anc-1 nuclear membrane localization, nuclear envelope localization
of Unc-84 requires lamin. For Syne-1, the vertebrate homolog of
Anc-1, experiments where the detergent digitonin was used to allow antibody
access to the outer but not the inner nuclear membrane provide direct evidence
that the KASH domain is in the outer nuclear membrane (Zhen, 2002). There is,
however, some conflicting data (Patterson, 2004 and references therein).
It is speculated that the N-terminal portion of Klar is linked to
microtubules by dynein. At present, it is not possible to test for
colocalization of Klar and dynein because there are no available reagents that
allow detection of dynein or dynactin in the eye disc. Nevertheless, there is
much evidence to support an essential role for dynein in R-cell nuclear
migration and Klar function. Dynactin, a regulator of dynein, is essential for
R-cell nuclear migration in the eye; mutants in the p150 dynactin subunit
(Glued) have a phenotype similar to that of klar mutants in the
eye disc. In addition, dynein linkage could explain why Klar is localized to
microtubules only apical to the nucleus; Klar that escapes the hold of the
nuclear envelope, still attached to dynein, could walk along microtubules to the
MTOC. Finally, Klar has been implicated as a regulator of dynein in
Drosophila embryos. In addition to its role in R-cell
nuclear migration, Klar is required for developmentally regulated migration of
lipid storage vesicles during embryogenesis. Lipid droplets at the center of the
cellular blastoderm embryo normally migrate cortically during gastrulation. In
embryos from klar mutant mothers, the lipid droplets fail to migrate. A
variety of data support a model where dynein transports the lipid droplets along
microtubules, whose minus ends are at the cell periphery. The results of
biophysical experiments has led to a model where Klar may attach the appropriate
types of motor to lipid droplets, control the number of actively engaged motors
on a droplet, or coordinate the activities of kinesins and dyneins bound
simultaneously to the same droplet.
Notably, dynein is required for nuclear attachment to centrosomes (the MTOCs)
during mitosis in the Drosophila embryo. Klar, however, is not essential for
this process (Patterson, 2004 and references therein).
The observation that the MTOC is normally apical to the R-cell nuclei, at the
leading edge of nuclear movement, suggests that a force pulls on the MTOC from
above. It is speculated that the mechanism for this force could be analogous to
the means by which the nucleus of budding yeast are pulled into the bud neck
before cell division. One pathway for migration of the nucleus into the bud neck
involves dynein, anchored at the cell cortex to which the nucleus is moving.
Cortically tethered dynein 'reels in' the nucleus by walking along microtubules
whose plus ends are at the cortex, toward the MTOC, which is anchored to the
nucleus. In support of this idea, microtubule plus-ends are present apically in
R-cells, and dynactin is essential for R-cell nuclear
migration (Patterson, 2004 and references therein).
Whether a force emanating from the apical membrane pulling on the MTOC would
drive nuclear migration or serve as an anchor after the nucleus has migrated
depends on where the MTOC initially forms. The gamma-tubulin antibody detects
MTOCs only apically in differentiating cells. Transiently basal MTOCs associated
with nuclei that are about to rise could have escaped detection. However, if the
MTOC does form apically, then the force that drives nuclear migration would come
from below the nucleus, that is, dynein, linked to the nuclear membrane by Klar
and lamin, walking on microtubules up toward the MTOC (Patterson, 2004).
The model proposed whereby Klar forms a bridge between nuclear lamin in the
inner nuclear membrane and cytoplasmic microtubules provides a general framework
for explaining how nuclear lamin affects cytoplasmic events. Drosophila
Lam mutations result in D/V polarity defects in eggs, and tracheal branching
defects in embryos. Moreover, a variety of human diseases are the result of
mutations in the LMNA gene, which encodes lamin A. The Drosophila Lam
Dm0 gene encodes type B lamin, whereas the Drosophila
LamC gene encodes lamin C, which is most similar to human lamin A. The A/C-
and B-type lamins are similar proteins, with some different structural features,
and some expression pattern differences. LMNA-associated human diseases affect
the heart, skeletal muscles, and the nervous system (Emery-Dreifuss muscular
dystrophy, limb-girdle muscular dystrophy, cardiomyopathy, and
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disorder), and metabolism (Dunnigan-type lipodystrophy). The
two main hypotheses as to how nuclear lamin defects can result in these disease
phenotypes are that the mutations either result in nuclear envelope fragility or result
in changes in gene expression. An alternative hypothesis is that the inner
nuclear envelope interacts with the cytoplasm through proteins like Klar or
Anc-1/Syne-1, which connect the inner nuclear envelope to the microtubule, or
actin cytoskeletons, respectively (Patterson, 2004 and references therein).
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lamin Dm0:
Biological Overview
| Evolutionary Homologs
| Regulation
| Developmental Biology
| Effects of Mutation
date revised: 20 April 2021
Home page: The Interactive Fly © 1997 Thomas B. Brody, Ph.D.
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